Cube is known to be the only open-source semantic layer with legitimate adoption and, among other reasons, this is due to its great data modeling capabilities. Lately, we've been focusing on increasing the sophistication of the data modeling experience in Cube with [custom time dimension granularities](https://cube.dev/blog/introducing-custom-time-dimension-granularities) and [multi-stage calculations](https://cube.dev/blog/introducing-next-generation-data-modeling-engine).

__Today, we are excited to announce the release of hierarchies and folders support.__ Now, you can use hierarchies to organize dimensions in your cubes. Also, you can group members of a view into logical folders to make it easier to navigate and understand the data model. Cube will ensure that hierarchies and folders are correctly reflected in the BI tools that support them.

See hierarchies and folders in action in this video:

<div><div style={{position: 'relative', paddingTop: '75%'}}><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Y5E6DmH_Hz4" style={{position: 'absolute', top: 0, left: 0, width: '100%', height: '100%'}} frameBorder="0" allowFullScreen></iframe></div></div>

## Hierarchies

Often, data model have numerous dimensions and some of them are crearly related to each other. Hierarchies can help organize such dimensions by grouping them together and assigning appropriate levels of granularity. For example, the `location` hierarchy can include `country`, `state`, `city`, and `zip_code` dimensions:

```yaml
cubes:
  - name: customers
    # ...

    dimensions:
      # Dimension definitions skipped for brevity

    hierarchies:
      - name: location
        title: Customer Location
        levels:
          - country
          - state
          - city
          - zip_code
```

Cube will only expose hierarchies defined in your data model to [BI tools](https://cube.dev/docs/product/configuration/visualization-tools#bi--data-exploration) that support them. Right now, you can use hierarchies in [Microsoft Excel](https://cube.dev/docs/product/configuration/visualization-tools/excel) and [Microsoft Power BI](https://cube.dev/docs/product/configuration/visualization-tools/powerbi). If you're building a custom embedded analytics solution, you can use hierarchies there as well: they are available via the [metadata API endpoint](https://cube.dev/docs/reference/rest-api#v1meta).

Finally, Playground can also visualize hierarchies and folders for you, both in Cube Cloud and self-hosted Cube:

![](https://ucarecdn.com/8a38093e-0e5e-41e5-8789-ceed91674e86/)

To learn more about hierarchies, check the [documentation](https://cube.dev/docs/reference/data-model/hierarchies).

## Folders

Folders are used to organize members of a view (e.g., dimensions, hierarchies, measures, etc.) into logical groups so you can easily navigate through them in your BI tool. For example, you can group all measures, dimensions, and hierarchies that constitute personally identifiable information (PII) into a `PII` folder:

```yaml
views:
  - name: employee_details

    cubes:
      - join_path: employees
        includes:
          # List of members skipped for brevity

    folders:
      - name: Personally Identifiable Information
        includes:
          # Dimensions
          - first_name
          - last_name
          - email
          - phone
          # Hierarchies
          - location
          - business_unit
          # Measures
          - avg_salary
          - yoy_salary_growth
```

Similarly to hierarchies, Cube will only expose folders to BI tools that support them. Right now, you can use folders in [Tableau](https://cube.dev/docs/product/configuration/visualization-tools/tableau) with [Semantic Layer Sync](https://cube.dev/docs/product/apis-integrations/semantic-layer-sync). Of course, you can build folders into your custom embedded analytics application, too.

To learn more about folders, check the [documentation](https://cube.dev/docs/reference/data-model/view#folders).

## What's next?

Hierarchies and folders support is available in Cube Core and Cube Cloud starting from v1.2.0. We recommend upgrading to the latest version to take advantage of these features.

If you have any questions or feedback, reach out to us on [Slack](https://slack.cube.dev). Also, don't hesitate to [request a demo](https://cube.dev/contact) or [sign-up for Cube Cloud](https://cubecloud.dev/auth/signup) to get started with Cube in minutes.

Igor Lukanin

News

Organize your data model in a way that feels native to Tableau, Excel, and Power BI

  Introducing hierarchies and folders support

The ability to model and analyze data isn't just the domain of developers and data engineers—it's a vital competency across all facets of a business. At Cube, we've always prided ourselves on delivering a top-notch developer experience, offering a powerful code-first approach that enables developers to craft intricate and efficient data models. 

But we also recognize that not everyone is proficient in code, and the opportunity to involve more people in the data modeling process will only strengthen collaboration across data teams and the value you receive from your data. That's why we're thrilled to announce Cube Visual Modeler. This addition to Cube Cloud opens the door for non-technical users to actively participate in data modeling without writing a single line of code, and code-proficient engineers have the option of working in code or no-code.

## Bridging the Gap Between Technical and Non-Technical Users
Until now, contributing to data models in Cube Cloud required a solid understanding of code—a barrier that limited participation to those with a technical background. While our code-first approach provides developers with the flexibility and control they need, it inadvertently leaves out valuable contributors who could offer critical business input.

We've listened to your feedback and understand that collaboration is key. Many of our customers have expressed the need for a visual interface that allows data analysts and business users to contribute directly to data models. With Cube Visual Modeler, we're making that a reality.

## Using Canvas as a Visual Interface for Interactive Data Modeling
At the heart of Cube Visual Modeler is the canvas-style interface. Think of it as a shared workspace where you can visualize, create, and modify data models in an intuitive and user-friendly environment. Replacing Data Graph, Canvas will be one place to see and edit data models visually.

Canvas displays your current data models, allowing you to see how different 
elements connect and interact. This visual representation makes it easier for non-technical users to understand the structure without sorting through code.

![](https://ucarecdn.com/fdbd309c-079c-4c37-b232-b4f40b880f85/-/quality/smart/-/format/auto/)

Users can build new cubes and views from scratch directly within Canvas. This feature empowers teams to expand their data models collaboratively, bringing diverse perspectives to the table. Modify joins, measures, and dimensions with simple form-based actions. 

Every change made in Cube Visual Modeler is translated into code behind the scenes. This approach maintains the integrity and flexibility of Cube's code-first philosophy while expanding accessibility.

- __Code Generation:__ As users make changes on Canvas, the system automatically generates the corresponding code. There's no need to worry about syntax errors or code structure—the interface handles it all.
- __Approval Workflow:__ Generated code isn't applied immediately. Instead, it goes through your existing code review processes, where data engineers can review, provide feedback, and approve changes via pull requests.
- __Consistency and Control:__ This method ensures that all contributions, whether from code or no-code users, adhere to the same standards and practices, maintaining a cohesive and reliable data model.

## Helping Data Teams Work More Efficiently Together 
Cube Cloud now provides you with a choice between the original code-first approach and Cube Visual Modeler, so that modeling becomes more collaborative. Diverse perspectives lead to more comprehensive data models, ultimately driving better business decisions. With more hands on deck, data models can be developed and refined more quickly. Non-technical users no longer rely solely on developers to implement changes, streamlining workflows.

Here's how it benefits non-developers:
- __Ease of Use:__ Eliminate the learning curve associated with coding. Users can engage with data models intuitively, focusing on their expertise rather than syntax and code structures.
- __Streamlined Workflow:__ Stop switching between different tools or interfaces. Everything—from viewing to editing—is accessible within Canvas.
- __Enhanced Collaboration:__ Bring data teams together Business users can contribute their logic directly, leading to more useful and applicable data models.

Cube Visual Modeler also offers significant advantages for data engineers and developers:
- __Insightful Visualization:__ Assess how well-used an object is before making changes. This visibility helps prioritize efforts and understand the impact of modifications.
- __Seamless Transition Between Code and Visuals:__ Locate objects within Canvas for context and then switch back to the code for deeper technical work.
- __Controlled Contributions:__ Review and approve generated code via pull requests. This means data engineers maintain control, ensuring that all updates meet your organization's data modeling standards.

## Join the Visual Revolution
At Cube, our mission is to make data accessible and actionable for everyone. The introduction of Cube Visual Modeler is a significant step toward that goal. By empowering a broader range of team members to participate in data modeling, you're fostering a more inclusive and innovative environment.

We remain committed to providing tools that are both powerful and user-friendly, catering to the diverse needs of modern organizations. We can't wait to see how you'll leverage this new capability to drive innovation and success within your teams. [Contact Sales](https://cube.dev/contacthttps://cube.dev/contact?utm_source=cube&utm_medium=blog&utm_content=no-code%20data%20modeling%20blog) to learn more.

David Jayatillake 

Data Modeling

Introducing Cube Visual Modeler: Empowering Everyone to Build with Data

Financial reporting and accounting in many countries and industries is typically [misaligned](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_year#Chart_of_various_fiscal_years) with the calendar year. This requires an additional data modeling effort when it comes to data analytics, and a related [feature request](https://github.com/cube-js/cube/issues/177) has been filed by a Cube community member more than five years ago. Despite Cube's data modeling layer has always provided enough flexibility for [custom calculations](https://web.archive.org/web/20240222131459/https://cube.dev/docs/guides/recipes/data-modeling/fiscal-year-quarter-dimensions), we have decided to introduce a first-class support for arbitrary time dimension granularities to account for their relevance and to promote and streamline their use.

**Today, we're excited to announce the support for fiscal and custom time dimension granularities.** Now you're able to define granularities such as a _fiscal year_, a _fiscal quarter_, or a _week starting on Sunday_ for any time dimension, query them via all supported APIs, and have these queries accelerated by pre-aggregations.

## Modeling custom granularities

The data modeling syntax has been extended to support custom granularities. Now, any time dimension can define a list of `granularities` that can be used with that time dimension in addition to all built-in granualrities such as `year` or `day`.

Consider the following example data model:

```yaml
cubes:
  - name: custom_granularities
    sql: >
      SELECT '2024-01-15'::TIMESTAMP AS timestamp UNION ALL
      SELECT '2024-02-15'::TIMESTAMP AS timestamp UNION ALL
      SELECT '2024-03-15'::TIMESTAMP AS timestamp UNION ALL
      SELECT '2024-04-15'::TIMESTAMP AS timestamp UNION ALL
      SELECT '2024-05-15'::TIMESTAMP AS timestamp

    dimensions:
      - name: timestamp
        sql: timestamp
        type: time

        granularities:
          - name: sunday_week
            interval: 1 week
            offset: -1 day

          - name: fiscal_year
            interval: 1 year
            offset: -3 months

      - name: timestamp__sunday_week
        sql: "{timestamp.sunday_week}"
        type: time

      - name: timestamp__fiscal_year
        sql: "{timestamp.fiscal_year}"
        type: time
```

In this data model, the `custom_granularities` cube has the `timestamp` time dimension that defines custom `sunday_week` and `fiscal_year` granularities. For convenience, they are also exposed via a couple of _proxy dimensions_: `timestamp__sunday_week` and `timestamp__fiscal_year`.

Querying them in Playground would provide the following result:

![Custom granularities in Playground](https://ucarecdn.com/ef26fc54-3160-4f85-9116-e2c6a5f9e25c/)

You can use custom granularities to support weeks starting on Sunday or Saturday, fiscal periods relevant for your industry or accounting policies, and even use cases when you'd like to group your time series data into arbitrarily sized buckets, e.g., "fortnight" or "15 minutes".

If you'd like to use the same custom granularity with multiple time dimensions, it is recommended to use [Jinja](https://cube.dev/docs/product/data-modeling/dynamic/jinja) to minimize code duplication.

## Querying custom granularities

Since the REST API [query format](https://cube.dev/docs/product/apis-integrations/rest-api/query-format#time-dimensions-format) provides a way to specify a requested granularity, you can naturally query custom granularities via the REST API:

```json
{
  "timeDimensions": [
    {
      "dimension": "custom_granularities.timestamp",
      "granularity": "sunday_week"
    }
  ],
  "dimensions": [
    "custom_granularities.timestamp"
  ]
}
```

When using the SQL API and working with custom granularities in BI tools, it is recommended to expose custom granualrities via proxy dimensions, as shown above. They will be made available to BIs as separate columns in your datasets:

![](https://ucarecdn.com/81c6ae8c-24bd-4fb6-abf4-e90bdb1f12fa/)

## Accelerating custom granularities

Queries with custom granularities are capable of reusing pre-aggregations that are defined with built-in pre-aggregations. For example, the following pre-aggregation should accelerate queries with both `week` and `sunday_week` granularities:

```yaml
cubes:
  - name: custom_granularities
    # ...

    pre_aggregations:
      - name: main
        # measures:
        #   - ...
        # dimensions:
        #   - ...
        time_dimension: timestamp
        granularity: day
```

You are also free to create pre-aggregations that specify custom granularities in their `granularity` parameter. Such pre-aggregations will only accelerate queries with that specifc custom granularity. That might be useful, for example, if you already have a pre-aggregation with the `year` granularity and don't want to switch it to `month` or `day` so that it also matches your queries with `fiscal_year` or `fiscal_quarter`.

## What's next?

Custom granularities support is available in Cube Core and Cube Cloud starting from v0.36.2. When upgrading to v0.36, please make sure to check the [release notes](https://github.com/cube-js/cube/releases/tag/v0.36.0) for breaking changes and deprecations.

**You can learn more about these data modeling updates in the documentation.** Take a refreshing look at the [time dimension concept](https://cube.dev/docs/product/data-modeling/concepts#time-dimensions), check the [custom granularities syntax](https://cube.dev/docs/reference/data-model/dimensions#granularities), see how you can reference a built-in or custom granularity via a [proxy dimension](https://cube.dev/docs/product/data-modeling/concepts/calculated-members#time-dimension-granularity). Finally, explore this [practical recipe](https://cube.dev/docs/guides/recipes/data-modeling/custom-granularity) with typical custom granularity examples.

**We encourage you to give custom granularities a try and share your feedback in the [Slack community](https://slack.cube.dev).** We'd like to know how you use custom granularities in your data modeling practice and how we can help improve your experience.

Streamlining industry- and country-specific time calculations

Introducing custom time dimension granularities

One frequently asked question our Sales Engineers at Cube encounter is: **"Why do we need a semantic layer if we already have a great data model built in dbt core or another tool?"** While a solid data model is fundamental, it alone isn't sufficient for optimal data access and utilization. There are several reasons [why adding a semantic layer](https://cube.dev/use-cases/semantic-layer) becomes crucial.

## Explicit metrics, not implied
Firstly, let's discuss consistency and governance. A [data model organizes and simplifies data](https://cube.dev/product/data-modeling), making it easier to manage and query. However, it still demands that data analysts write SQL queries to access the data. This process, while effective, is susceptible to errors. Even skilled analysts can make mistakes, leading to inconsistencies and incorrect data retrieval. In a complex data ecosystem, it's easy to miss nuances in how metrics are calculated, which can lead to significant discrepancies. A semantic layer mitigates these issues by making the definitions of metrics explicit rather than implied. For instance, without a semantic layer, an analyst might mistakenly count order lines instead of considering the quantity field, producing inaccurate results that could pass a superficial quality check. Semantic layers encode these rules, ensuring that every data query follows the same logic and metrics definitions, eliminating the need for manual checks and reducing errors.

## Abstraction reduces complexity
Beyond just consistency, the semantic layer offers a more intuitive interface for data retrieval. While data models require SQL proficiency to query data, [semantic layers abstract this complexity away](https://cube.dev/blog/why-api-based-data-access-is-essential-for-modern-data-management). This is particularly beneficial for engineers who might not be adept at writing SQL but are familiar with other interfaces like REST APIs. By compiling simple requests into complex, consistent SQL, semantic layers allow users to interact with data systems without needing in-depth SQL knowledge. For instance, instead of writing detailed SQL queries, a user can simply make a request for "order lines by month" or "order quantity by customer," and the semantic layer handles the intricacies. This abstraction not only speeds up development but also reduces the risk of bugs in applications that rely on data retrieval.

## Complex queries in plain language
AI preparedness is another compelling reason to adopt a semantic layer. These layers provide the context benefits of a knowledge graph and add the constraints and compiler needed to execute queries. This makes it easier for AI systems to interact with and analyze data accurately. The [semantic layer allows complex queries to be expressed in plain language](https://cube.dev/use-cases/llm-and-ai-semantic-layer), making it easier for AI to understand and process them. For example, SQL queries could be simplified to something like to "order lines by month" and "order quantity by customer." The semantic layer handles the complex SQL transformation, making the data easier to access and analyze for AI agents. This not only improves AI's accuracy but also makes the entire system more user-friendly.

## Clearly defined user access
Security is another critical aspect where semantic layers shine. Because these layers are well-defined and minimal, they make it easier to [enforce security policies](https://cube.dev/product/semantic-layer-security). The clear and obvious entities within a semantic layer provide a perfect checkpoint for security measures, ensuring that only authorized users can access specific data. This is much harder to achieve with raw SQL queries where securing each query individually is cumbersome and error-prone.

## Optimized cost and latency
Performance and cost efficiencies are significant benefits of adopting semantic layers. The consistent SQL generated by a semantic layer increases the likelihood of hitting the data warehouse cache, reducing both the cost and latency of data queries. Humans writing SQL can easily introduce slight variations in their queries for the same goal, decreasing cache hit probabilities. Moreover, [semantic layers can enable sophisticated caching](https://cube.dev/product/caching-and-data-performance) mechanisms, including pre-aggregation of known query patterns. These caches are more functional than typical data warehouse caches, providing higher cache hit ratios and even partial hits where only very recent data needs to be fetched. This is especially crucial for companies offering data as a product to their customers, where optimizing cost and latency is essential. Cloud data warehouse vendors, whose revenue is often tied to compute usage, have little incentive to invest in advanced caching. Hence, the semantic layer fills this gap, ensuring that your investment in a data model yields the desired performance and cost benefits.

In conclusion, while good data modeling is fundamental, stopping there would mean missing out on substantial benefits. The semantic layer offers enhanced consistency, a more intuitive interface, improved AI readiness, better security, and significant performance and cost advantages. These benefits make the semantic layer an indispensable component for any data-driven organization looking to maximize the utility and efficiency of their data assets.


Where should a semantic layer be built?

As data continues to grow in importance and complexity, Cube Cloud's latest innovations, built on the [universal semantic layer](https://cube.dev/use-cases/semantic-layer), ensure that enterprises can connect the entire organization with the right data. These advancements promise to simplify the way businesses discover, explore, and access modeled data, making it more accessible to everyone. 

With the introduction of [Semantic Catalog and AI Assistant](https://cube.dev/product/semantic-catalog-and-ai-assistant), Cube Cloud extends its utility even further to data analysts and business users within your organization. Let’s take a closer look at how Cube’s AI-powered universal semantic layer unlocks the value of trusted data.

## Semantic Catalog: Search a Unified View of Connected Data Assets
Semantic Catalog provides a comprehensive, unified view of connected data assets that is essentially self-documenting and always up-to-date, based on the data models you define. Users can effortlessly search through data modeled in Cube Cloud, explore downstream connected BI content, and examine upstream tables. 

This capability allows users to gain insights into the lineage, entities, relationships, dimensions, and metrics of their data. Additionally, users can visually navigate upstream connections to source tables and downstream connections to charts and dashboards across all BI platforms using a Data Graph. 

By providing a unified view, Semantic Catalog reduces duplicate efforts in data modeling and analysis, fostering better collaboration between data engineers and data analysts. This unified approach not only increases productivity but also takes the guesswork out of who to ask or where to go to find trusted data.

![](https://ucarecdn.com/051e290c-e12f-465e-af2a-2ee851462c13/-/quality/smart/-/format/auto/)

## AI Assistant: Ask Questions and Get Trusted Answers

Cube’s AI Assistant takes data accessibility to the next level. This feature allows users to interact with their data using conversational, natural language queries, providing trusted answers instantly. The GenAI-powered AI Assistant provides quick insights without technical expertise–no SQL code to write or drag-and-drop needed. 

Users can easily discover available modeled data, downstream connected BI content, and upstream tables from Semantic Catalog. Furthermore, AI Assistant allows users to preview charts and engage in deeper exploration in Playground 2.0 in one click. 

This feature lowers the barrier for business users to work with enterprise data by democratizing access further, enabling everyone in the organization, not just data engineers, to interpret and utilize data effectively, leading to faster and more informed decision-making across the board.

![](https://ucarecdn.com/5fc1d16f-1c6c-40bb-b6b0-0aefb8acf9a6/-/quality/smart/-/format/auto/)

## Cube’s Vision for Data-Driven Decision Making

For the first time, Cube's universal semantic layer is not just a tool for data engineers but an invaluable resource for everyone else in your organization. Administrators can define roles with specific permissions for Semantic Catalog, AI Assistant, and [Playground](https://cube.dev/docs/product/workspace/playground) access and apply those roles to users, creating a tailored user experience for non-data engineering users. 

Whether you are a data analyst searching for data to start your analysis or a business user seeking instant insights, the new capabilities in Cube Cloud ensure that everyone can participate in the data-driven decision-making process.
<Quote authorName="Artyom Keydonuv" authorAvatar="https://media.graphcms.com/mvIb32XHRoibCutwm7WA"  authorRole="CEO & Co-Founder, Cube"> As the demand for data grows, delivering value consistently, efficiently, and at scale becomes more challenging. Cube Cloud’s AI-driven capabilities enable more people throughout the organization to make more informed decisions and derive value from the single source of truth the universal semantic layer provides. When it comes to AI, the universal semantic layer is the critical piece of the puzzle to ensure accuracy without hallucinations. </Quote>

Cube is making it possible for a broader audience within organizations to benefit from data-driven insights. Data analysts can now interpret data more consistently, while business users gain a better understanding of the data, facilitating better, faster business decisions. Combining [AI with the universal semantic layer](https://cube.dev/blog/semantic-layer-the-backbone-of-ai-powered-data-experiences) to provide context, you can ensure accuracy and reduce hallucinations. 

## Transforming Data Interactions

While data continues to grow in importance and complexity, Cube Cloud's innovative features ensure that enterprises can unlock the full potential of their data assets and their people. By making modeled data easy to discover, explore, and access, Cube Cloud empowers organizations to deliver value to everyone from it. 

[Contact sales](https://cube.dev/contact "Contact sales") to explore the new Cube Cloud features today and transform the way your organization interacts with data.

Michael Hetrick

All Things Cube

Unlock the Value of Trusted Data with Semantic Catalog and AI Assistant

We often hear from our customers that they want the ability to create data models in languages other than JavaScript—specifically YAML and Python. Today, we’re excited to release a public preview for YAML data modeling in Cube. This feature is available in both Cube Cloud and Cube Core.

Our goal is to support all the core features of Cube’s data modeling, as well as caching and multi-tenancy configurations, within YAML, and later, Python. 

YAML and Python are universally adopted in the modern data stack: data engineers setup Airflow DAGs in Python and author dbt models in YAML  while data analysts perform data exploration in Python-based notebooks. In order for data engineers to not have to shift between YAML and JS as they work with so many different tools in their stacks, we want to bring support for these languages to Cube.

> “Cube’s YAML support makes my life easier because it streamlines the compatibility between the tools in my stack and my data modeling. Not needing to toggle between different languages saves me time and effort. I’m excited about this feature—and about what Cube has in store for future updates!”

– Olivier Dupuis, Analytics Engineering Consultant, Rittman Analytics

## Getting started with YAML

To get started with YAML data modeling in Cube, you’ll need to first ensure that you’re using Cube version 0.31.0 or higher.

Then,  create a `schema/orders.yml` file with the following content: 

```yaml
cubes:
  - name: orders
    sql: SELECT * FROM public.orders

    measures:
      - name: count
        type: count
      - name: total_revenue
        sql: amount
        type: sum

    dimensions: 
      - name: id
        sql: id
        type: number
        primary_key: true  
      - name: status
        sql: status
        type: string
```

You can learn more about YAML models in our [newly-released documentation](https://cube.dev/docs/schema/getting-started/yaml). 

## The future of YAML (and Python) in Cube

This release is the first step in our journey to bring both YAML and Python support to Cube. As we continuously implement and bolster support, there are some things we’ll continue to enhance, specifically around developer experience.

The following are the major areas on which we’re working.

### Dynamic data models

Many of Cube’s customers leverage [dynamic data models](https://cube.dev/docs/schema/advanced/dynamic-schema-creation) for multi-tenant scenarios. While it is possible to use `COMPILE_CONTEXT` already, dynamic data model generation is not yet available for YAML models.

We’re planning to let users write Python to dynamically generate models the very same way they can write JavaScript to generate them today. And, if you’re interested in this feature, we’d love to hear your thoughts—so, please [post your thoughts](https://github.com/cube-js/cube.js/issues/5045) on how this feature should be implemented.

### YAML configuration

While most of the Cube configuration can be done via environment variables—the way we recommend doing it—users lean on the JS-based `cube.js` configuration file for advanced configuration. We’re planning to introduce YAML and Python support for advanced configuration scenarios as well.

### Documentation and best practices
We’re releasing initial documentation for YAML modeling today. In the near future, we’ll update Cube documentation to fully integrate YAML models reference and examples. We are also updating our guides, tutorials, and best practices to showcase YAML examples alongside JS ones.

### Cloud IDE support
As part of our Cube Cloud vision, we’re aiming to build a first-class development environment for building data models in Cube, which now includes YAML models. Our Cloud IDE will include data model validation, in-line tips, pre-commit testing, and many more useful features focused on developer productivity and ergonomics. 

## Give us feedback

You can help us prioritize the features we work on and engage with our open-source software via [Slack](https://slack.cube.dev/), [GitHub](https://github.com/cube-js/cube.js), or [our contact page](https://cube.dev/contact). 

And if you have any questions about getting started with Cube’s YAML support (or any other questions, for that matter) find us on our Slack! As always, we’d love to hear from you. 

Artyom Keydunov

You asked—we listened. Now, you can do your Cube data modeling in YAML. 

Introducing YAML Data Modeling in Cube

I’m a software engineer at [Ternary](https://ternary.app/), a company that provides a FinOps platform to serve Google Cloud (GCP) customers' unique needs. Ternary’s platform empowers cloud engineers, IT finance, and business teams to collaborate more effectively on public cloud cost optimization. The company is in high-growth mode on all fronts, and its platform now supports many of the largest GCP customers. These customers bring the challenge of providing a SaaS platform at scale. 
 
Below, I show how Ternary has solved the challenge of managing the large volume of cost-related data these customers produce, utilizing that data to forecast and optimize spend. I explain the so-called 3-query approach to the analysis of large multidimensional datasets that we use to identify the most interesting data for our users and provide real-world code snippets in the second half of this article.

## Multidimensional analysis of cost datasets

![Ternary dashboard](https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/Ternary-dashboard.png)

Ternary’s platform features the ability to break down costs by projects and other dimensions across a time series. For users that have many values in a given dimension (e.g., a few thousand GCP projects), or for those who want to analyze unique combinations of dimensions, we would have to load and analyze substantial result sets on the front-end, not to mention that we would also frequently run into issues with Cube’s response limit of [50,000 rows](https://cube.dev/docs/query-format#query-properties). For example, let’s say I want to look at total spend for every project across the last 30 days while breaking that spend by one or more additional dimensions. Chances are that the result set would contain thousands of rows and if I exceed the limit of 50K rows, I will generate an incomplete dataset and won’t be able to calculate my total costs. 

Ternary is a cost-management platform, so it’s critical that we present complete, accurate data. To enable our users to perform multidimensional analysis of vast volumes of cost data, we asked ourselves what data our users most want to see.

Ternary displays most of its data in line or bar graphs, which are useful only with data points up to a certain amount. A line graph with 50 increments on the y-axis can be hard to read, especially if some y-axis values are much greater than others. At Ternary, we hypothesized that many of our key users would want to focus on what we call, informally, their “most interesting” data points, which we defined as their highest spend in a 30-day period, as well as the general shape of their expenses during that time. It’s debatable what “most interesting” is in every case. But for us, it is usually the groupings that account for the most spend.

Now that we have assumed what our users are really interested in, we imposed limits on our queries so that the user sees only that data. This focus makes our charts more readable and removes the concern about maxing out the Cube response limit.

In limiting the data, we inevitably lose some portion of the entire picture. The top 10 “most interesting” dimension values will likely not account for all of a user’s costs. If there were as many as 100 dimension values, our method would expose but a fraction of these. 

So, to account for any missing data, we roll all the “less interesting” data points into an “other” column. By including this “other” column, we fulfill our above-mentioned mandate to provide complete and accurate data, reflecting total spend and ensuring the accuracy of any subsequent calculations. 

## The 3-query approach to querying top N rows

In order to expose the “most important” data and generate the “other” column, we need to fire off at least three queries. Let’s go through the high-level query breakdown here.

**Scenario:** As a Ternary user, I want to see how much my team has spent day by day, broken down by project ID and category, over the last 30 days.

**Query 1:** Request all of the cost totals day by day, over the last 30 days, with desired query filters. At this point, we will not include dimensions. Note that the “cost” measure in this example is of type “sum.”

![Query 1 image](https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/Ternary-query-1.png)

**Query 2:** Request the top N number of the “most interesting” combinations of projects and categories. In this case, we will find out which project-category pairs had the highest overall spend in the last month. For this scenario, let’s assume N is 3. 

![Query 2 image](https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/Ternary-query-2.png)

Now that we have a list of the top three combinations, we’ll generate query filters. Note that the new filters must use [Boolean logical operators](https://cube.dev/docs/query-format#boolean-logical-operators) to accurately filter for specific project ID-category storage groupings.

**Query 3:** Request cost day by day over the last 30 days, broken down by project-category pairs, using the filters generated from query two in addition to any user-selected filters. (Note that we will include additional dimensions now.)

![Query 3 image](https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/Ternary-query-3.png)

This query would return 3 * 30 = 90 data points. However, there is a discrepancy between the total spend of those three projects and the total overall cost on any given day. To account for this difference, we take the totals from query 1 and subtract the values from query 3 to generate an “other” column, which we also display for the user.

![Final chart](https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/Ternary-final-chart.png)

By this method, we generate a complete overview, identifying the most expensive projects while preserving the total cost using the “other” column. While the overview does not display every project and some specificity is lost, all the data is reflected in one form or another. 

Keep in mind that N can be much larger than three; it should change according to the user’s goals. Lastly, it’s important to acknowledge that while this solution is a “three-step process,” the actual number of queries being run will be 1 + 2m, where m is the number of measures that the user wants to see. This is because we want to gather a separate set of filters for every measure requested. 

For example, say we wanted to see separately the three projects responsible for the most spend and the three projects responsible for the most usage. While we can use query 1 to request all of the selected measure totals across the time series, we will need to fire off queries 2 and 3 for both cost and usage separately. Otherwise, we will muddle the results with an inconsistent number of data points for cost and usage.

To try this out yourself, create the following Cube schema:

```js
cube(`CostByProjectAndCategory`, {
  title: "CostByProjectAndCategory",
  sql: `
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-07") AS timestamp, 14 AS cost, "production" AS project, "compute" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-08") AS timestamp, 15 AS cost, "production" AS project, "Network" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-09") AS timestamp, 15 AS cost, "production" AS project, "databases" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-10") AS timestamp, 16 AS cost, "production" AS project, "analytics" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-11") AS timestamp, 15 AS cost, "production" AS project, "compute" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-12") AS timestamp, 15 AS cost, "production" AS project, "databases" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-13") AS timestamp, 15 AS cost, "production" AS project, "compute" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-07") AS timestamp, 12 AS cost, "staging" AS project, "compute" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-08") AS timestamp, 13 AS cost, "staging" AS project, "databases" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-09") AS timestamp, 12 AS cost, "staging" AS project, "network" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-10") AS timestamp, 13 AS cost, "staging" AS project, "compute" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-11") AS timestamp, 15 AS cost, "staging" AS project, "databases" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-12") AS timestamp, 13 AS cost, "staging" AS project,"network" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-13") AS timestamp, 13 AS cost, "staging" AS project, "databases" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-07") AS timestamp, 8 AS cost, "dev" AS project, "storage" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-08") AS timestamp, 9 AS cost, "dev" AS project, "databases" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-09") AS timestamp, 8 AS cost, "dev" AS project,  "storage" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-10") AS timestamp, 8 AS cost, "dev" AS project, "compute" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-11") AS timestamp, 9 AS cost, "dev" AS project, "network" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-12") AS timestamp, 8 AS cost, "dev" AS project, "databases" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-13") AS timestamp, 9 AS cost, "dev" AS project, "compute" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-07") AS timestamp, 7 AS cost, "test" AS project, "analytics" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-08") AS timestamp, 6 AS cost, "test" AS project, "storage" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-09") AS timestamp, 7 AS cost, "test" AS project, "storage" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-10") AS timestamp, 6 AS cost, "test" AS project, "databases" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-11") AS timestamp, 4 AS cost, "test" AS project, "network" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-12") AS timestamp, 6 AS cost, "test" AS project, "compute" AS category UNION ALL
    SELECT TIMESTAMP("2022-04-13") AS timestamp, 6 AS cost, "test" AS project, "analytics" AS category
  `,

  measures: {
    cost: {
      sql: "cost",
      type: "sum",
    },
  },

  dimensions: {
    timestamp: {
      sql: "timestamp",
      type: "time",
    },
    project: {
      sql: "project",
      type: "string",
    },
    category: {
      sql: "category",
      type: "string",
    },
  },
});
 
```

The three queries you’ll need to run are shown below, in JSON query format:

**Query 1**

```json
{
  "measures": [
    "CostByProjectAndCategory.cost"
  ],
  "timeDimensions": [ {
    "dimension": "CostByProjectAndCategory.timestamp",
    "granularity": "day",
    "dateRange": [
      "2022-04-07",
      "2022-04-13"
    ]
  } ]
}
```

**Result**

![Query 1 result](https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/query-1-result.png)

**Query 2**

```json
{
  "measures": [
    "CostByProjectAndCategory.cost"
  ],
  "dimensions": [
    "CostByProjectAndCategory.project",
    "CostByProjectAndCategory.category"
  ],
  "timeDimensions": [ {
    "dimension": "CostByProjectAndCategory.timestamp"
  } ],
  "order": {
    "CostByProjectAndCategory.cost": "desc"
  },
  "limit": 2
}
```

**Result**

![Query 2 result 1](https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/query-2-result.png)

**Query 3**
```json
{
  "measures": [
    "CostByProjectAndCategory.cost"
  ],
  "dimensions": [
    "CostByProjectAndCategory.project",
    "CostByProjectAndCategory.category"
  ],
  "timeDimensions": [ {
    "dimension": "CostByProjectAndCategory.timestamp",
    "granularity": "day",
    "dateRange": [
      "2022-04-07",
      "2022-04-13"
    ]
  } ],
  "order": {
    "CostByProjectAndCategory.cost": "desc"
  },
  "filters": [ {
    "or": [
      {
        "and": [
          {
            "member": "CostByProjectAndCategory.project",
            "operator": "equals",
            "values": ["production"]
          },
          {
            "member": "CostByProjectAndCategory.category",
            "operator": "equals",
            "values": ["compute"]
          }
        ]
      },
      {
        "and": [
          {
            "member": "CostByProjectAndCategory.project",
            "operator": "equals",
            "values": ["staging"]
          },
          {
            "member": "CostByProjectAndCategory.category",
            "operator": "equals",
            "values": ["databases"]
          }
        ]
      }
    ]
  } ],
  "limit": 50000
}
```

**Result**

![Query 3 result](https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/query-3-result.png)

### Performance

Because including a large number of dimensions complicates the Boolean logical filters applied, and because including a large number of measures increases the number of queries to which we must apply that complicated logic, it’s crucial to consider actual use cases and their resulting user impact. To test Ternary’s new query format, we used the Ternary Reporting Engine: a feature of our platform that allows users to query their data flexibly, by selecting different dimensions, measures, and filters. Here, we ran a number of queries with multiple measures, dimensions, and filters, to get a sense of how complex our queries could be without significantly compromising the app’s performance. We found that, using this 3-query approach, the duration of a request where N = 20 was the same as that of using one query to gather all the data, with the added benefit that our results stayed within the 50K-row limit.

### Cost

Given that Ternary is a cost-management platform, we recognize the importance of considering costs when making changes such as this one. As stated before, the number of Cube queries needed to fulfill a single request on behalf of any given customer would increase, from 1 to 1 + 2m. It follows that the cost to implement a feature in this way could also increase by a similar factor if, for example, using [BigQuery’s on-demand pricing](https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/pricing#on_demand_pricing) like we do, where the amount you are charged is proportional to the amount of data you read. Even if we were to increase the amount we spend, serving this data by a factor of, on average, three, five, or even ten, we determined that it would be a reasonable price to pay for the benefits, including showing customer data that conveys the full picture instead of truncating it as we previously had. 

Each use case is different and should be considered individually. If all queries are accelerated with [pre-aggregations](https://cube.dev/docs/caching#pre-aggregations) or if Cube points toward a Postgres instance, and if the query volume is relatively low, cost considerations may not be as relevant.

Katie Law

User Stories

How Ternary zeroes in on most interesting data.

Ternary's three-query approach to present the most interesting data in less than 50k rows

Previously, we’ve discussed the recent emergence of headless BI, and reviewed [headless BI’s four essential components][1]. Now, let’s take a more in-depth look at one of those layers: data modeling. Here is an introduction to open source data modeling in Cube’s headless BI platform.

How data is modeled is the first fundamental element of the business intelligence stack, because it organizes and streamlines querying a data source. Additionally, the data model defines the relationships between each data entity, which forms the basis of all analysis of that data.

Data modeling is a vital component of the BI stack and must be consistent and universally accessible. And so, its logic should be defined only once, and should be defined in code. Furthermore, this code should be governed by version control, to enable safe iteration as an organization grows.

## A data modeling language for Headless BI

![open source data modeling language for headless BI][image01]

Cube’s entire headless BI platform is open source—and this includes our open source data modeling language. This language is used to describe measures, dimensions, and relationships in a data source. Then, Cube servers use the model written in this language to generate SQL queries against data sources when responding to requests made to our REST, GraphQL, and SQL APIs.

Unlike [other data modeling languages][7], Cube’s data modeling language is not tied to any specific interface, visualization, or user experience. This decoupling makes it possible to use the same model definitions across every application. Each data consumer can have a custom-tailored experience in the data application of their choice while still working with consistent and standardized definitions.

## The design of Cube’s data modeling language

**Cube’s data model is a relational graph of the entities that contain measures and dimensions.** 

In Cube, entities are called “cubes”—inspired by OLAP cubes. In essence, they are data tables with a semantic meta layer that describes both the cube’s measures and dimensions and its relationships to other cubes. 


![open source data modeling - Cube][image02]

**Cube operates on the foundational primitives of *dimensions* and *measures*.** Users can define metrics by combining these primitives.  

***Dimensions***  are properties of entity objects, e.g., a user’s country or a product’s category. 

```javascript
cube(`Products`, {
  dimensions: {
    category: {
      sql: `category`,
      type: `string`
    }
  }
});
```

***Measures*** are aggregations, typically defined as SQL expressions or algebraic operations over other measures:


```javascript
cube(`Orders`, {
  measures: {
    totalValue: {
      sql: `value`,
      type: `sum`
    }
  }
});
```

Finally, cubes are connected to each other and constitute a data graph.


```javascript
cube(`Orders`, {
  joins: {
    Products: {
      relationship: `belongsTo`
      sql: `${Orders}.product_id = ${Products}.id`,
    }
  }
});
```

When users construct metrics, the dimensions and measures they query don’t have to belong to the same cube. They can be located in different places on the data graph. Cube will generate appropriate SQL, including taking care of [chasm / fan-outs][8], to join the underlying tables to respond to the request. 

![open source data modeling - Cube][image03]

**Cube’s approach is different from a query-oriented approach** in which metrics are defined by a custom query and a bunch of attributes are assigned to that query. That approach essentially results in single cubes, each with a single measure and a subset of dimensions and filters. Because these cubes aren’t connected to one another, we can’t reuse dimensions, filters, joins, access controls, caching configuration, etc. 

If we were to continue answering more questions and building more metrics, we would have to build more queries, with duplicated definitions and different join paths. At best, this would be repetitive; at worst, it would lead to inconsistent definitions and a combinatorial explosion of metrics and dimensions. 

Instead, we’re focused on letting users define relationships and reuse definitions to build maintainable and scalable data models.

**Cube’s data modeling language is based on JavaScript.** This may come as a surprise, given that many data modeling frameworks and languages are based on YAML. However, as a markup language, YAML has no runtime and only limited capacity for code organization. This is a big limitation for complex and dynamic data models.

By running a data model in a JavaScript virtual machine, Cube can mutate the model at runtime both reactively and proactively, which enables dynamic data definitions, caching, and access control rules.

**Cube’s data modeling language also manages caching.** Users can define a set of measures and dimensions that are commonly used together, and materialize them as rollup tables. Since the caching rules are defined in code, it’s possible to manage them using best practices including version control, code reviews, and tests in isolated environments.

![open source data modeling - Cube][image06]

**In Cube, data processing and storage are written in Rust**, based on the [Datafusion][9] query execution framework, which uses [Apache Arrow][10] as its in-memory format.

## A data modeling example

Let’s take a look at how to use Cube’s data modeling language.

We’ll model data for an imaginary e-commerce website. Assume the data warehouse has tables like `orders` and `users` with information about transactions and who placed them.

### Orders

<table>
  <tr>
    <td>
      <code>id</code>
    </td>
    <td>ID of the order</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>
      <code>user_id</code>
    </td>
    <td>ID of the user</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>
      <code>value</code>
    </td>
    <td>Value of the order in USD</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>
      <code>status</code>
    </td>
    <td>Status of the order, either “processing” or “completed”</td>
  </tr>
</table>

### Users

<table>
  <tr>
    <td>
      <code>id</code>
    </td>
    <td>ID of the user</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>
      <code>country</code>
    </td>
    <td>Country of the user</td>
  </tr>
</table>

We can represent these two tables in Cube’s modeling language as cubes with this configuration:


```javascript
cube(`Orders`, {
 sql: `SELECT * FROM orders`,
 measures: {
   totalValue: {
     sql: `value`,
     type: `sum`,
     description: 'Revenue from completed orders placed on our website.',
   }
 },
 dimensions: {
   id: {
     sql: `id`,
     type: `number`,
     primaryKey: true
   },
  
   status: {
     sql: `status`,
     description: 'Status of the order, either processing or completed',
     type: `string`
   },
  
   time: {
     sql: `timestamp`,
     type: `time`
   }
 }
});
```

```javascript
cube(`Users`, {
  sql: `select * from users`,
  dimensions: {
    id: {
      sql: `id`,
      type: `number`,
      primaryKey: true
    },

    country: {
      sql: `country`,
      type: `string`,
      description: `User's country of residence`
    }
  }
});
```

Let’s look at the major elements of the model.

The `sql` property describes the table of data that will be used in cube, which references the underlying table within the data warehouse. It also can support arbitrary SQL queries in complex cases.

The cubes include defined **_measures_** and **_dimensions_**:

 - ***Measures:*** quantitative data, such as the number of units sold, number of unique visits, revenue, and so forth
 - ***Dimensions:*** properties of data entities, such as state, gender, product name, or units of time
 
To build data relationships, we define the `joins` property on one of the cubes:

```javascript
cube(`Orders`, {
  joins: {
    Users: {
      relationship: `belongsTo`
      sql: `${Orders}.user_id = ${Users}.id`,
    }
  }
});
```

## Querying the data model

With the above data model, it’s now possible to query Cube’s APIs to learn total value grouped by country, or a specific company‘s total value from completed orders.

To find out the total value of orders by country, we’d use the following JSON query:

```json
{
  measures: [Orders.totalValue],
  dimensions: [Users.country]
}
```

You also can explore the data model from within a BI tool:

![querying a Cube data model using Superset][image07]

These examples are relatively simple, but a data model and queries can get very complex, with many measures, dimensions, and relationships.

By creating a data model foundation and exposing metrics via many APIs, Cube ensures that data is accessible and consistent for every downstream application.

 - *Want to explore Cube’s data modeling for yourself? [Create a free Cube Cloud account now][2].*
 - *Have questions or input? [Drop us a line][3], [join our Slack][4], or [view our headless BI project on GitHub][5].*
 - *Want updates like these in your inbox? [Subscribe to our newsletter][6].*

[1]: https://cube.dev/blog/headless-bi
[2]: https://cube.dev/cloud
[3]: https://cube.dev/contact
[4]: https://slack.cube.dev
[5]: https://github.com/cube-js/
[6]: https://cube.dev/#email
[7]: https://www.looker.com/platform/data-modeling/
[8]: https://biguru.wordpress.com/2008/05/01/its-all-in-the-universe-handling-chasm-and-fan-traps/
[9]: https://github.com/apache/arrow-datafusion
[10]: https://arrow.apache.org/
[image01]: https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/713a8abb-a7d2-4c83-b1f7-6b39bcbbd748.png
[image02]: https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/26a0660e-b04a-4eaf-b863-7a4c7a72c87f.png
[image03]: https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/86a88814-86a5-4236-9edf-208d18215ea4.png
[image04]: https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/d4290ab8-3c0d-401b-ae7c-4828b784280f.png
[image05]: https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/d701d0de-1b86-450b-9d2e-b302a5aae7e6.png
[image06]: https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/8b3a6449-c759-4263-9198-87bd29e2b44d.png
[image07]: https://cubedev-blog-images.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/688c2958-0016-4d3b-8699-18477d524f8b.png

An introduction to open source data modeling in Cube’s headless BI platform.

Cube’s Open Source Data Modeling Language

If you’re new to the big data world and also migrating from tools like Google Analytics or Mixpanel for your web analytics, you probably noticed performance differences. Google Analytics can show you predefined reports in seconds, while the same query for the same data in your data warehouse can take several minutes or even more. Such performance boosts are achieved by selecting random rows or the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sampling technique</a>. Let’s learn how to select random rows in SQL.

<h1>Sample and Population</h1>

Before we start to work on sampling implementation, it is worth mentioning some sampling fundamentals. Sampling is based on a subset selection of individuals from some population to describe this population’s properties. So if you have some event data, you can select a subset of unique users and their events to calculate metrics that describe all users’ behavior. On the other hand, if you select a subset of events, it won’t describe the behavior of the population precisely.

Given this fact, we assume all data sets to which sampling is applied have unique user identifiers. Moreover, if you have both anonymous user identifiers and authorized user identifiers, we assume using the last one as it delivers more accurate results.

<h1>Selecting Random Rows in SQL</h1>

There’re <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)#Sampling_methods">plenty of different methods</a> you can use to select a subset of users. We’ll consider only two of those as the most obvious and simple to implement: simple random sampling and systematic sampling.

Simple random sampling can be implemented as giving a unique number to each user in a range from 0 to N-1 and then selecting X random numbers from 0 to N-1. N denotes the total number of users here and X is the sample size. Although this method is very simple for understanding, it’s a little bit tricky to implement in an SQL environment, mostly because random number generator outputs don’t scale very well when sample sizes are equal to billions. Also it isn’t very clear as to how to get evenly distributed samples over time.

Bearing this in mind, we’ll use systematic sampling which can overcome these obstacles from an SQL implementation perspective. Simple systematic sampling may be implemented as selecting one user from each M users at a specified interval. In this case, sample size will be equal to N / M. Selecting one user out of M while preserving uniform distribution across sample buckets is the main challenge of this approach. Let’s see how this can be implemented in SQL.

<h1>Sequence Generated User Identifiers</h1>

You’re lucky if your user IDs are integers generated as a strict sequence without gaps like those generated by <code>AUTO_INCREMENT</code> primary key fields. In this case, you can implement systematic sampling as simple as:

```
select * from events where ABS(MOD(user_id, 10)) = 7
```

This SQL query and all SQL queries below are in Standard BigQuery SQL. In this example, we’re selecting one user out of 10, which is a 10% sample. 7 is the random number of the sampling bucket and it can be any number from 0 to 9. We use MOD operation to create sampling buckets which stand for the remainder of a division by 10 in this particular case. It’s really simple to show that if <code>user_id</code> is a strict integer sequence, then user counts are uniformly distributed across all sampling buckets when user count is high enough.

To estimate the event count, for example, you can write something like:

```
select count(*) * 10 as events_count from events where ABS(MOD(user_id, 10)) = 7
```

Please note the multiplication by 10 in this query. Given the fact that we use a 10% sample, all estimated additive measures should be scaled by 1/10% in order to match real values.

One can question how precise this sampling approach is for a specific dataset. You can estimate it by checking how uniform the distribution is within sampling buckets. To do that you can query something like:

```
select ABS(MOD(user_id, 10)), count(distinct user_id) from events GROUP BY 1
```

Let’s consider some example results of this query:

<table class="ui table">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">0</span></td>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">115617904</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">1</span></td>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">115639491</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">2</span></td>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">115635158</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">3</span></td>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">115631186</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">4</span></td>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">115614455</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">5</span></td>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">115636846</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">6</span></td>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">115644374</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">7</span></td>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">115652641</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">8</span></td>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">115648788</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">9</span></td>
<td><span css="font-weight: 400;">115654729</span></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

We can calculate the mean and confidence interval for an alpha coefficient equal to 0.01 for these sampling bucket sizes. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_interval#Basic_steps">confidence interval</a> will be equal to 0.01% of the sampling bucket average size. This means that with 99% probability the sampling bucket sizes differ not more than 0.01%. Different metrics calculated with these sampling buckets couple with this statistic but don’t inherit it. So, in order to calculate precision for event count estimation, you can calculate the event count for each sample as:

```
select ABS(MOD(user_id, 10)), count(*) * 10 from events GROUP BY 1
```

Then calculate absolute and relative confidence intervals for these event counts as in the case of user count to get event count estimate precision.

<h1>String Identifiers and Other User Identifiers</h1>

<p>In the case that you have string user identifiers or integers, but not a strict sequence instead of integer sequence identifiers, you need a way to distribute all user IDs between different sampling buckets in a uniform manner. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash_function#Uniformity">This</a> can be done by hash functions. Not all hash functions can get you uniform distribution under different circumstances. You can check <a href="https://github.com/rurban/smhasher/tree/master/doc">smhasher</a> test suite results to check how good a particular hash function is at this.</p>

For example, in BigQuery you can use the <code>FARM_FINGERPRINT</code> hash function to prepare a sample for select:

```
select * from events where ABS(MOD(FARM_FINGERPRINT(string_user_id), 10)) = 7
```

<code>FARM_FINGERPRINT</code> can be replaced with any suitable hash function, such as <code>xxhash64</code> in Presto or even the combination of <code>md5</code> and <code>strtol</code> in Redshift.

As in the case of sequence-generated user identifiers you can check uniformity statistics as:

```
select ABS(MOD(FARM_FINGERPRINT(string_user_id), 10)), count(distinct string_user_id) from events GROUP BY 1
```

<h1>Common Pitfalls</h1>

Most often, sampling can reduce your SQL query execution time by more than 5-10 times without being harmful in terms of precision, but there are still cases where you should be cautious. This mostly belongs to a sampling bias problem because of sample size. It can occur when dispersion of metrics you’re interested in between samples is too high even if the sample size is big enough.

For example, you can be interested in some rare event count such as an enterprise demo request being some B2C site with a huge amount of traffic. If the enterprise demo request count is about 100 events per month and your monthly active users is about 1M, then sampling can lead you in a situation where the enterprise demo request count estimate with a 10% sample produces significant errors. Generally speaking, sampling random rows in SQL should be avoided in this case or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)#Stratified_sampling">more sophisticated methods</a> should be used instead.

As always don't hesitate to leave your comments or <a href="https://statsbot.co/?utm_source=statsbotblog&amp;utm_medium=article&amp;utm_campaign=random_rows">contact our team</a> to get help.

Pavel Tiunov

Big Data sampling in SQL

Scalable Select of Random Rows in SQL

Many of “out-of-the-box” analytics solutions come with automatically defined user sessions. It’s good to start with, but as your company grows, you’ll want to have your own session definitions based on your event data. Analyzing user sessions with SQL gives you flexibility and full control over how metrics are defined for your unique business.  

## What is a session and why should I care?
The session is usually defined as **a group of interactions that one user executes within a given time frame on your app.** Usually, that time frame defaults to 30 minutes. One session includes any events which a user completes on your app before leaving, for example, visiting pages, downloading materials, performing actions.

![](https://media.graphcms.com/chXMIfwwTICos0Hlh06y)

Having sessions in place, we’ll be able to answer questions like:

- How much time did users spend on the app?
- What is the bounce rate?
- What are the most used areas of the app?
- Where are the users who make target actions coming from?
- Where are users spending most of their time?

### Defining user sessions right
To define a user session we need to have an event table in our database with at **least user_id** and **timestamp.**

![](https://media.graphcms.com/Fccj465SV6XdgPl7MukA)

Usually, you will have a lot of additional information in the event tables, such as event type, name, device info, referrer, and much more. All these properties are going to be very useful to give more context to our sessions and to build things, such as an attribution model.

_**Note: In this post, we’re going to use [window functions](https://statsbot.co/blog/sql-window-functions-tutorial), so the following example will not work with MySQL. Also, all these queries are dedicated to Redshift database.**_

### Step 1
The first step for defining user sessions with SQL is to find out the difference between the timestamp of the current row and the previous one, by _**user_id**_. We will use [LAG function](https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/functions-window.html) to accomplish it. This will give us an inactivity time between events.

```
SELECT
	*
	, DATEDIFF(minutes, lag(timestamp) over (PARTITION BY user_id order by timestamp), timestamp) as inactivity_time
FROM events
```

The _**inactivity_time**_ for the first event is NULL, since it’s the first event and we don’t have anything before it.

### Step 2
We can use _**inactivity_time**_ to group events into sessions based on 30 minute intervals of inactivity. First, we’ll select all events where _**inactivity_time**_ is either NULL, or more than 30 minutes, which means it is the first event in the session.

Based on this first event, we define _**session_start_at**_,  which is the timestamp of the first event. We use [ROW_NUMBER function](https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/functions-window.html) to calculate session sequence, which is used in _**session_id**_.

```
SELECT
      event.user_id || '-' || row_number() over(partition by event.user_id order by event.timestamp) as session_id
      , event.user_id
      , event.timestamp as session_start_at
      , lead(timestamp) over(partition by event.user_id order by event.timestamp) as next_session_start_at
    FROM
      (SELECT
            e.user_id
	     , e.timestamp
             , DATEDIFF(minutes, LAG(e.timestamp) OVER(PARTITION BY e.user_id ORDER BY e.timestamp), e.timestamp) AS inactivity_time  
          FROM events AS e
      ) as event
    WHERE (event.inactivity_time > 30 OR event.inactivity_time is null)
```

We can save this table as **sessions** Data Mart to use it in our future queries.

Once we have this table, it’s easy to answer user analytics questions we outlined in the beginning. For example, to calculate average session duration we can use the following SQL.

```
SELECT
  COUNT(*) AS sessions_count,
  AVG(duration) AS average_session_duration
FROM (
  SELECT session_id
        , DATEDIFF(minutes, MIN(events.timestamp), MAX(events.timestamp)) AS duration
  FROM sessions
  LEFT JOIN events on events.user_id = sessions.user_id
        AND events.timestamp >= events.session_start_at
        AND (events.timestamp < sessions.next_session_start_at OR sessions.next_session_start_at is null)
  GROUP BY 1
)
```

As you see, we join _**events table**_ to _**sessions**_ to map every event to its session. It allows us to get the end of each session, which is the max timestamp of the event within the given session. More complex calculations of session duration could optionally include a window of inactivity as well.

What to learn more about Statsbot? [Try it now.](https://statsbot.co/form-trial)

Analyzing user sessions with SQL

Event Analytics: How to Define User Sessions with SQL

<em>The <a href="https://statsbot.co/?utm_source=statsbotblog&amp;utm_medium=article&amp;utm_campaign=ltv&amp;utm_content=predict_ltv">Statsbot</a> team estimated LTV 592 times for different clients and business models. We share our experience in this post and in a <strong><a href="https://statsbot.co/ltv-ebook?utm_source=statsbotblog&amp;utm_medium=article&amp;utm_campaign=ltv&amp;utm_content=predict_ltv">free ebook</a></strong> on how to calculate customer lifetime value with SQL without sophisticated statistical models.</em>

<button url="https://statsbot.co/ltv-ebook?utm_source=statsbotblog&utm_medium=article&utm_campaign=ltv">Get a Free Ebook on Estimating LTV</button>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">Customer lifetime value, or LTV, is the amount of money that a customer will spend with your business in their “lifetime,” or at least, in the portion of it that they spend in a relationship with you. It’s an important indicator of how much you can spend on acquiring new customers. <strong>For example, your customer acquisition cost (CAC) is $150, and LTV is $600.</strong> You would be able to increase the budget to get more people and grow your business. The balance between CAC and LTV allows you to check any business for market survival.</span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">Estimating LTV is a predictive metric which depends on future purchases, based on past patterns, and allows you to see how much risk you are exposed to as a business, and how much you can afford to spend to acquire new clients. At an individual level, it also enables you to figure out who your highest-value customers are likely to be, not just now, but also in the future. </span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">In order to understand how to estimate LTV, it is useful to first think about evaluating a customer’s lifetime value at the end of their relationship with us. So, say a customer stays with us for 12 months, and spends $50 per month.</span>

<figure><img src="https://media.graphcms.com/1pHvnSjGSZWL7w2geaKt" /></figure>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">The revenue that they generated for our business over their lifetime is then $50*12 = $600.  Simple! We can consider the </span><i><span css="font-weight: 400;">basic definition of LTV</span></i><span css="font-weight: 400;"> as a sum of payments from a specific user.</span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">This same principle applies to the group. If we want to see</span><i><span css="font-weight: 400;"> the average LTV </span></i><span css="font-weight: 400;">for the group we can look at total spend divided by the number of customers. When we’re talking about </span><i><span css="font-weight: 400;">estimating LTV </span></i><span css="font-weight: 400;">for the group</span><i><span css="font-weight: 400;">, or predictive LTV, </span></i><span css="font-weight: 400;">we need to take into account how long customers stay with us. To get that, we actually look at it “backwards”: we look at how many customers we lose over time, or the </span><i><span css="font-weight: 400;">churn rate</span></i><span css="font-weight: 400;">.</span>

<aside><h2><strong><a href="https://blog.statsbot.co/how-to-reduce-churn-rate-by-27-by-handling-stripe-failed-payments-e75892f8956c">How to Reduce Churn Rate By Handling Stripe Failed Payments</a></strong></h2></aside>

<h1><span css="font-weight: 400;">How do you calculate LTV for SaaS?</span></h1>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">At a group level, the basic formula for estimating LTV is this:</span>

<figure><img src="https://media.graphcms.com/Y7XAnM7R4Wjj1QCObxFK" /></figure>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">Where ARPU is average monthly recurring revenue per user and the churn rate is the rate at which we are losing customers (so the inverse of retention). </span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">This basic formula can be obtained from assumption:</span>

<b><i>Next Month Revenue = (Current Month Revenue) * (1 - Churn Rate)</i></b>

<i><span css="font-weight: 400;">Note: When we’re estimating customer lifetime value for SaaS we can neglect Gross Margin, because costs are minor and don’t affect the accuracy of a result. But when we calculate predictive LTV for ecommerce later in this article, we’ll include COGS in our formula.</span></i>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">The main limitation of the LTV formula above is that it assumes that churn is linear over time, as in: we are as likely to lose a customer between the first month of membership of our service and the second, as we are to lose them much later on. Going deeper into the nature of predictive LTV, we can say that it’s a sum of a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_series"><span css="font-weight: 400;">geometric series</span></a><span css="font-weight: 400;">, and linear churn doesn’t look like a straight line (as is shown in many articles about LTV). </span>

> <span css="font-weight: 400;">In fact, we know that linear churn is usually not the case. </span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">In a flexible subscription model, we lose many people at the very beginning, when they are “testing out” a service, but once they have been with us for a long time, they are less likely to leave. </span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">Ultimately, it depends on the type of contract that exists between customers and the business: for example, annual renewals, where churn is more linear, will result in LTV that is very close to the formula above.</span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">Services which do not have any contracts may lose a high percentage of their new customers, but then churn may slow down.</span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">We can think of this concept graphically: </span>

<figure><img src="https://media.graphcms.com/eHFY3aPTUWfUvzmMIBvA" /></figure>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">If the LTV of the group is the area under the line, we can very clearly see that the rate at which we lose customers will impact our LTV estimates very significantly. So we will need to take this into account when we are making our calculations. For a first estimate of LTV, however, it makes sense to go with the simplest formula. After that, we will add levels of complexity.</span>

<h1><span css="font-weight: 400;">Extracting ARPU and churn using SQL</span></h1>

<aside><h2><a href="https://statsbot.co/ltv-ebook?utm_source=blog&amp;utm_medium=article&amp;utm_campaign=ltv&amp;utm_content=predict_ltv">FREE Ebook on Calculating LTV with SQL</a></h2></aside>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">In order to make the most basic estimate of LTV, we need to look at our transaction history. Then, we can establish the average revenue per customer as well as the churn rate over the period that we are looking at. For simplicity, I’m going to look at the last year.</span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">You can calculate ARPU in 2 steps:</span>

```
month_ARPU AS
(SELECT
     visit_month, 
     Avg(revenue) AS ARPU 
FROM
     (SELECT
          Cust_id,
          Datediff(MONTH, ‘2010-01-01’, transaction_date) AS visit_month, 
          Sum(transaction_size) AS revenue 
     FROM   transactions 
     WHERE  transaction_date > Dateadd(‘year’, -1, CURRENT_DATE) 
     GROUP BY
           1, 
           2) 
GROUP BY 1)
```

<span css="font-weight: 400;">The results will look like this:</span>

<figure><img src="https://media.graphcms.com/BxnzN8snROGRB1jt5bVZ" /></figure>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">In the case above, that would give us an average monthly spend of </span><b>$987.33.</b>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">Calculating churn rate is a bit more complicated, as we need the percentage of people </span><b>not </b><span css="font-weight: 400;">returning from one month to the next, taking each group of customers according to the month of their first visit, and then checking if they came back or not in the following month.</span>

> <span css="font-weight: 400;">The problem is always that, in a transactional database, we have customers’ visits on separate lines, rather than all on the same line. </span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">The way to fix that problem is to join the transactional database to itself, so that we can see a customer’s behavior on one single line.</span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">In order to isolate those who churned, we take the visits from month 1, and left join the visits from month 2 on the cust_id. The lines where visits from month 2 have a cust_id that is null are the ones where the customer has not returned.</span>

```
WITH monthly_visits AS 
(SELECT
     DISTINCT
     Datediff(month, ‘2010-01-01’, transaction_date) AS visit_month, 
     cust_id 
FROM            transactions 
WHERE
transaction_date > dateadd(‘year’, -1, current_date)), 

(SELECT
avg(churn_rate) 
FROM
     (SELECT
          current_month, 
          Count(CASE 
               WHEN cust_type='churn' THEN 1 
               ELSE NULL 
     	  END)/count(cust_id) AS churn_rate 
     FROM
          (SELECT
               past_month.visit_month + interval ‘1 month’ AS current_month, 
               past_month.cust_id, 
               CASE
                    WHEN this_month.cust_id IS NULL THEN 'churn' 
                    ELSE 'retained' 
               END AS cust_type 
          FROM
               monthly_visits past_month 
  	       LEFT JOIN monthly_visits this_month ON
                    this_month.cust_id=past_month.cust_id
                    AND this_month.visit_month=past_month.visit_month + interval ‘1 month’
          )data
     GROUP BY 1)
)
```

<span css="font-weight: 400;">Say this gives us a result of 0.1, just for simplicity.</span>

<figure><img src="https://media.graphcms.com/gAWIhxiSLWLLjLBqDHmA" /></figure>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">It is a simple calculation, then, to estimate LTV: we have monthly ARPU and monthly churn, so we just divide one by the other!</span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">$987.33/0.1 = </span><b>$9873.3</b>

<aside><h2 class="ui header"><a href="https://statsbot.co/blog/customer-retention-analysis/">A Guide for Customer Retention Analysis with SQL</a></h2></aside>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">As stated earlier, there are limits to this formula, mostly because it makes a series of assumptions that may not hold in the real world. The main one is that retention and churn rates are </span><i><span css="font-weight: 400;">stable both across cohorts and across time</span></i><span css="font-weight: 400;">.</span>

<span css="font-weight: 400;">Stability across cohorts implies that early adopters of your service act in similar ways to late adopters, while stability across time implies that customers’ likelihood of churning out is the same at the beginning of their relationship with you as it is, for example, 2 years in. Depending on how close to the truth these assumptions are, you may need to revise your LTV estimate downwards.</span>

<strong>If you want to lean how to estimate LTV for ecommerce, for cohorts and each individual customer, download our FREE ebook on calculating customer lifetime value with SQL. </strong>

<button url="https://statsbot.co/ltv-ebook?utm_source=statsbotblog&utm_medium=article&utm_campaign=ltv">Get a Free Ebook on Estimating LTV</button>

Luba Belokon

Estimating LTV for SaaS and ecommerce using SQL

Calculating Customer Lifetime Value: SQL Example

Alex Yeskov

The most popular business problems solved with SQL

SQL Window Functions Tutorial for Business Analysis

Analyzing funnels in an SQL database is not a hard task when you know the right queries. Using SQL language, you can dive into complex funnels and event flow analysis to gain insights into your users’ behavior. In this article, we’re going to tell how we, at <a href="https://statsbot.co/cloud-bi?utm_source=newblog&amp;utm_medium=article&amp;utm_campaign=sql_funnel" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Statsbot</a>, use SQL queries for conversion funnel analysis.

<h3><strong>Why to build funnels</strong></h3>

Funnels are an extremely useful and helpful data tool that can provide you a great overview about your product. In a nutshell, funnels are representing several events your users perform one after another. Calculating how many unique users made each event could show you a <strong>conversion rate between each step</strong>, so you could actually localize a problem down to a certain stage.

At Statsbot, we measure how many people signed up, connected integration, and used the <em>Scheduled Report</em> feature. Users who performed all these actions are considered as successfully on-board.

Let’s take this process as an example and see how we can actually create this funnel with SQL. The following queries are written for PostgreSQL. You can just copy them and build your funnel right away.

<h3><strong>Step 1 — Signup event</strong></h3>

In our DB we have a table called <em>Bots</em>. Any user who signed up to Statsbot has a unique ID number and they get added to this table, so bots = users in our case.

In order to get the number of signups, we simply need to choose <em>Bots</em> table, apply the date range we need, and specify the function, which is count.

```
SELECT count(*)
FROM bots
WHERE created_at BETWEEN ‘2017-05-01’ AND ‘2017-05-31’
```

We can see now that during this time we got 745 signups.

<figure><img src="https://media.graphcms.com/tbQYlSx0RO2zGOfdwdfa" /></figure>

<h3><strong>Step 2 — Calculating Integration connected event</strong></h3>

Next, we need to find out how many out of those 745 users connected at least one integration.

In our DB we have a table called “Integrations” that contains an integer value representing how many integrations have been connected by user.

We now need to make a following SQL query to get the result. Note that we are querying a number of integrations connected by users out of those who signed up in May, which we defined in Step 1.

```
SELECT count(*)
FROM bots
WHERE 
  (SELECT count(*)
  FROM integrations
  WHERE integrations.bot_id = bots.id)>0
  AND created_at BETWEEN ‘2017-05-01’ AND ‘2017-05-31’
```

Awesome! The result is 104 integrations that had been connected by users who signed up in May.

<h3><strong>Step 3 — How many users scheduled at least one report?</strong></h3>

Okay, the next step is exactly the same as the previous one. We just add another event from a <em>scheduled_reports</em> section with the same condition to complete this nested query.

```
SELECT count(*)
FROM bots
WHERE 
   (SELECT count(*)
   FROM integrations
   WHERE integrations.bot_id = bots.id)>0
AND
   (SELECT count(*)
   FROM scheduled_reports
   WHERE scheduled_reports.bot_id = bots.id)>0
AND created_at BETWEEN ‘2017-05-01’ AND ‘2017-05-31’
```

The result is 61 users have scheduled at least one report.

<figure><img src="https://media.graphcms.com/gSYs76YFTNOoVP3rYLNE" /></figure>

<h3><strong>Step 4 — Putting all pieces together for creating a funnel analysis</strong></h3>

This is where the most interesting part comes in. Let’s take all the logic we’ve worked on together and create the conversion funnel — our initial goal.

```
SELECT count(*) AS Step1,
count(*) FILTER(
  WHERE (
   SELECT count(*)
   FROM integrations
   WHERE integrations.bot_id = bots.id
 ) > 0
) AS Step2,
count(*) FILTER(
  WHERE (
   SELECT count(*)
   FROM integrations
   WHERE integrations.bot_id = bots.id
 ) > 0 and (
   SELECT count(*)
   FROM scheduled_reports
   WHERE scheduled_reports.id = bots.id
 ) > 0
) AS Step3
FROM bots
WHERE created_at BETWEEN '2017-05-01' AND '2017-05-31'
```

This is what our final result looks like after visualization.

<figure><img src="https://media.graphcms.com/fc9YnbmOQ4GO6pdeRfvo" /></figure>

This funnel gives us the insight that we have some problems with onboarding and connecting the first integration. Then, we can make some changes and build the same funnel in one week to measure whether the conversion rate increases or decreases.

Further, we can detect 43 users who connected the data source but didn’t schedule the report yet. They are <a href="http://statsbot.co/blog/how-to-reduce-churn-rate-by-handling-stripe-failed-payments/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">in churn risk</a>, and we need to get in touch with them quickly to get back on track.

<strong>You should also remember one important thing: we created a funnel, which is affected by a</strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slowly_changing_dimension" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> slowly changing dimension</strong></a><strong> problem.</strong> In our case, users are signed up in May, but at the same time they could add more integrations and schedule more reports during their customer life cycle. This might result in changes to the numbers in Step 2 and Step 3.

If you have an event based system, then a slowly changing dimension problem can be eliminated. For example, we use Mixpanel to build the same funnel this way:

```
SELECT
  COUNT(
  DISTINCT CASE WHEN cur_signup_time IS NOT NULL
    THEN distinct_id END
  ) Step1,
  COUNT(
  DISTINCT CASE WHEN cur_signup_time IS NOT NULL AND cur_int_time IS NOT NULL
    THEN distinct_id END
  ) Step2,
  COUNT(
  DISTINCT CASE WHEN
    cur_signup_time IS NOT NULL AND cur_int_time IS NOT NULL AND cur_new_schedule_time IS NOT NULL
    THEN distinct_id END
  ) Step3
FROM (
       SELECT
         distinct_id,
         "time",
         COALESCE(signup_time,
                  LAG(signup_time) IGNORE NULLS OVER(PARTITION BY distinct_id
                  ORDER BY time)
         ) cur_signup_time,
         COALESCE(int_time,
                  LAG(int_time) IGNORE NULLS OVER(PARTITION BY distinct_id
                  ORDER BY time)
         ) cur_int_time,
         COALESCE(new_schedule_time,
                  LAG(new_schedule_time) IGNORE NULLS OVER(PARTITION BY distinct_id
                  ORDER BY time)
         ) cur_new_schedule_time
       FROM
         (
           SELECT
             "time",
             distinct_id,
             (CASE WHEN event = 'Signup'
               THEN time END) signup_time,
             (CASE WHEN event = 'Integration connected'
               THEN time END) int_time,
             (CASE WHEN event = 'New Schedule'
               THEN time END) new_schedule_time
           FROM mixpanel.mixpanel_export
           WHERE "time" > '2016-05-01' AND "time" < '2017-01-01'
           ORDER BY distinct_id, "time"
         ) event_times
       ORDER BY distinct_id, "time"
     ) event_windows
```

These 4 steps are easy to follow to build your first funnel in SQL. We hope this will be a good start to customizing your analysis with SQL power!